+    return struct_pack('%dB' % len(xs), *xs)
+
+
+# Cross-platform file locking
+if sys.platform == 'win32':
+    import ctypes.wintypes
+    import msvcrt
+
+    class OVERLAPPED(ctypes.Structure):
+        _fields_ = [
+            ('Internal', ctypes.wintypes.LPVOID),
+            ('InternalHigh', ctypes.wintypes.LPVOID),
+            ('Offset', ctypes.wintypes.DWORD),
+            ('OffsetHigh', ctypes.wintypes.DWORD),
+            ('hEvent', ctypes.wintypes.HANDLE),
+        ]
+
+    kernel32 = ctypes.windll.kernel32
+    LockFileEx = kernel32.LockFileEx
+    LockFileEx.argtypes = [
+        ctypes.wintypes.HANDLE,     # hFile
+        ctypes.wintypes.DWORD,      # dwFlags
+        ctypes.wintypes.DWORD,      # dwReserved
+        ctypes.wintypes.DWORD,      # nNumberOfBytesToLockLow
+        ctypes.wintypes.DWORD,      # nNumberOfBytesToLockHigh
+        ctypes.POINTER(OVERLAPPED)  # Overlapped
+    ]
+    LockFileEx.restype = ctypes.wintypes.BOOL
+    UnlockFileEx = kernel32.UnlockFileEx
+    UnlockFileEx.argtypes = [
+        ctypes.wintypes.HANDLE,     # hFile
+        ctypes.wintypes.DWORD,      # dwReserved
+        ctypes.wintypes.DWORD,      # nNumberOfBytesToLockLow
+        ctypes.wintypes.DWORD,      # nNumberOfBytesToLockHigh
+        ctypes.POINTER(OVERLAPPED)  # Overlapped
+    ]
+    UnlockFileEx.restype = ctypes.wintypes.BOOL
+    whole_low = 0xffffffff
+    whole_high = 0x7fffffff
+
+    def _lock_file(f, exclusive):
+        overlapped = OVERLAPPED()
+        overlapped.Offset = 0
+        overlapped.OffsetHigh = 0
+        overlapped.hEvent = 0
+        f._lock_file_overlapped_p = ctypes.pointer(overlapped)
+        handle = msvcrt.get_osfhandle(f.fileno())
+        if not LockFileEx(handle, 0x2 if exclusive else 0x0, 0,
+                          whole_low, whole_high, f._lock_file_overlapped_p):
+            raise OSError('Locking file failed: %r' % ctypes.FormatError())
+
+    def _unlock_file(f):
+        assert f._lock_file_overlapped_p
+        handle = msvcrt.get_osfhandle(f.fileno())
+        if not UnlockFileEx(handle, 0,
+                            whole_low, whole_high, f._lock_file_overlapped_p):
+            raise OSError('Unlocking file failed: %r' % ctypes.FormatError())
+
+else:
+    import fcntl
+
+    def _lock_file(f, exclusive):
+        fcntl.flock(f, fcntl.LOCK_EX if exclusive else fcntl.LOCK_SH)
+
+    def _unlock_file(f):
+        fcntl.flock(f, fcntl.LOCK_UN)
+
+
+class locked_file(object):
+    def __init__(self, filename, mode, encoding=None):
+        assert mode in ['r', 'a', 'w']
+        self.f = io.open(filename, mode, encoding=encoding)
+        self.mode = mode
+
+    def __enter__(self):
+        exclusive = self.mode != 'r'
+        try:
+            _lock_file(self.f, exclusive)
+        except IOError:
+            self.f.close()
+            raise
+        return self
+
+    def __exit__(self, etype, value, traceback):
+        try:
+            _unlock_file(self.f)
+        finally:
+            self.f.close()
+
+    def __iter__(self):
+        return iter(self.f)
+
+    def write(self, *args):
+        return self.f.write(*args)
+
+    def read(self, *args):
+        return self.f.read(*args)
+
+
+def get_filesystem_encoding():
+    encoding = sys.getfilesystemencoding()
+    return encoding if encoding is not None else 'utf-8'
+
+
+def shell_quote(args):
+    quoted_args = []
+    encoding = get_filesystem_encoding()
+    for a in args:
+        if isinstance(a, bytes):
+            # We may get a filename encoded with 'encodeFilename'
+            a = a.decode(encoding)
+        quoted_args.append(pipes.quote(a))
+    return ' '.join(quoted_args)
+
+
+def smuggle_url(url, data):
+    """ Pass additional data in a URL for internal use. """
+
+    sdata = compat_urllib_parse.urlencode(
+        {'__youtubedl_smuggle': json.dumps(data)})
+    return url + '#' + sdata
+
+
+def unsmuggle_url(smug_url, default=None):
+    if '#__youtubedl_smuggle' not in smug_url:
+        return smug_url, default
+    url, _, sdata = smug_url.rpartition('#')
+    jsond = compat_parse_qs(sdata)['__youtubedl_smuggle'][0]
+    data = json.loads(jsond)
+    return url, data
+
+
+def format_bytes(bytes):
+    if bytes is None:
+        return 'N/A'
+    if type(bytes) is str:
+        bytes = float(bytes)
+    if bytes == 0.0:
+        exponent = 0
+    else:
+        exponent = int(math.log(bytes, 1024.0))
+    suffix = ['B', 'KiB', 'MiB', 'GiB', 'TiB', 'PiB', 'EiB', 'ZiB', 'YiB'][exponent]
+    converted = float(bytes) / float(1024 ** exponent)
+    return '%.2f%s' % (converted, suffix)
+
+
+def parse_filesize(s):
+    if s is None:
+        return None
+
+    # The lower-case forms are of course incorrect and unofficial,
+    # but we support those too
+    _UNIT_TABLE = {
+        'B': 1,
+        'b': 1,
+        'KiB': 1024,
+        'KB': 1000,
+        'kB': 1024,
+        'Kb': 1000,
+        'MiB': 1024 ** 2,
+        'MB': 1000 ** 2,
+        'mB': 1024 ** 2,
+        'Mb': 1000 ** 2,
+        'GiB': 1024 ** 3,
+        'GB': 1000 ** 3,
+        'gB': 1024 ** 3,
+        'Gb': 1000 ** 3,
+        'TiB': 1024 ** 4,
+        'TB': 1000 ** 4,
+        'tB': 1024 ** 4,
+        'Tb': 1000 ** 4,
+        'PiB': 1024 ** 5,
+        'PB': 1000 ** 5,
+        'pB': 1024 ** 5,
+        'Pb': 1000 ** 5,
+        'EiB': 1024 ** 6,
+        'EB': 1000 ** 6,
+        'eB': 1024 ** 6,
+        'Eb': 1000 ** 6,
+        'ZiB': 1024 ** 7,
+        'ZB': 1000 ** 7,
+        'zB': 1024 ** 7,
+        'Zb': 1000 ** 7,
+        'YiB': 1024 ** 8,
+        'YB': 1000 ** 8,
+        'yB': 1024 ** 8,
+        'Yb': 1000 ** 8,
+    }
+
+    units_re = '|'.join(re.escape(u) for u in _UNIT_TABLE)
+    m = re.match(
+        r'(?P<num>[0-9]+(?:[,.][0-9]*)?)\s*(?P<unit>%s)' % units_re, s)
+    if not m:
+        return None
+
+    num_str = m.group('num').replace(',', '.')
+    mult = _UNIT_TABLE[m.group('unit')]
+    return int(float(num_str) * mult)
+
+
+def month_by_name(name):
+    """ Return the number of a month by (locale-independently) English name """
+
+    try:
+        return ENGLISH_MONTH_NAMES.index(name) + 1
+    except ValueError:
+        return None
+
+
+def month_by_abbreviation(abbrev):
+    """ Return the number of a month by (locale-independently) English
+        abbreviations """
+
+    try:
+        return [s[:3] for s in ENGLISH_MONTH_NAMES].index(abbrev) + 1
+    except ValueError:
+        return None
+
+
+def fix_xml_ampersands(xml_str):
+    """Replace all the '&' by '&' in XML"""
+    return re.sub(
+        r'&(?!amp;|lt;|gt;|apos;|quot;|#x[0-9a-fA-F]{,4};|#[0-9]{,4};)',
+        '&',
+        xml_str)
+
+
+def setproctitle(title):
+    assert isinstance(title, compat_str)
+    try:
+        libc = ctypes.cdll.LoadLibrary('libc.so.6')
+    except OSError:
+        return
+    title_bytes = title.encode('utf-8')
+    buf = ctypes.create_string_buffer(len(title_bytes))
+    buf.value = title_bytes
+    try:
+        libc.prctl(15, buf, 0, 0, 0)
+    except AttributeError:
+        return  # Strange libc, just skip this
+
+
+def remove_start(s, start):
+    if s.startswith(start):
+        return s[len(start):]
+    return s
+
+
+def remove_end(s, end):
+    if s.endswith(end):
+        return s[:-len(end)]
+    return s
+
+
+def remove_quotes(s):
+    if s is None or len(s) < 2:
+        return s
+    for quote in ('"', "'", ):
+        if s[0] == quote and s[-1] == quote:
+            return s[1:-1]
+    return s
+
+
+def url_basename(url):
+    path = compat_urlparse.urlparse(url).path
+    return path.strip('/').split('/')[-1]
+
+
+class HEADRequest(compat_urllib_request.Request):
+    def get_method(self):
+        return 'HEAD'
+
+
+def int_or_none(v, scale=1, default=None, get_attr=None, invscale=1):
+    if get_attr:
+        if v is not None:
+            v = getattr(v, get_attr, None)
+    if v == '':
+        v = None
+    if v is None:
+        return default
+    try:
+        return int(v) * invscale // scale
+    except ValueError:
+        return default
+
+
+def str_or_none(v, default=None):
+    return default if v is None else compat_str(v)
+
+
+def str_to_int(int_str):
+    """ A more relaxed version of int_or_none """
+    if int_str is None:
+        return None
+    int_str = re.sub(r'[,\.\+]', '', int_str)
+    return int(int_str)
+
+
+def float_or_none(v, scale=1, invscale=1, default=None):
+    if v is None:
+        return default
+    try:
+        return float(v) * invscale / scale
+    except ValueError:
+        return default
+
+
+def parse_duration(s):
+    if not isinstance(s, compat_basestring):
+        return None
+
+    s = s.strip()
+
+    m = re.match(
+        r'''(?ix)(?:P?T)?
+        (?:
+            (?P<only_mins>[0-9.]+)\s*(?:mins?\.?|minutes?)\s*|
+            (?P<only_hours>[0-9.]+)\s*(?:hours?)|
+
+            \s*(?P<hours_reversed>[0-9]+)\s*(?:[:h]|hours?)\s*(?P<mins_reversed>[0-9]+)\s*(?:[:m]|mins?\.?|minutes?)\s*|
+            (?:
+                (?:
+                    (?:(?P<days>[0-9]+)\s*(?:[:d]|days?)\s*)?
+                    (?P<hours>[0-9]+)\s*(?:[:h]|hours?)\s*
+                )?
+                (?P<mins>[0-9]+)\s*(?:[:m]|mins?|minutes?)\s*
+            )?
+            (?P<secs>[0-9]+)(?P<ms>\.[0-9]+)?\s*(?:s|secs?|seconds?)?
+        )$''', s)
+    if not m:
+        return None
+    res = 0
+    if m.group('only_mins'):
+        return float_or_none(m.group('only_mins'), invscale=60)
+    if m.group('only_hours'):
+        return float_or_none(m.group('only_hours'), invscale=60 * 60)
+    if m.group('secs'):
+        res += int(m.group('secs'))
+    if m.group('mins_reversed'):
+        res += int(m.group('mins_reversed')) * 60
+    if m.group('mins'):
+        res += int(m.group('mins')) * 60
+    if m.group('hours'):
+        res += int(m.group('hours')) * 60 * 60
+    if m.group('hours_reversed'):
+        res += int(m.group('hours_reversed')) * 60 * 60
+    if m.group('days'):
+        res += int(m.group('days')) * 24 * 60 * 60
+    if m.group('ms'):
+        res += float(m.group('ms'))
+    return res
+
+
+def prepend_extension(filename, ext, expected_real_ext=None):
+    name, real_ext = os.path.splitext(filename)
+    return (
+        '{0}.{1}{2}'.format(name, ext, real_ext)
+        if not expected_real_ext or real_ext[1:] == expected_real_ext
+        else '{0}.{1}'.format(filename, ext))
+
+
+def replace_extension(filename, ext, expected_real_ext=None):
+    name, real_ext = os.path.splitext(filename)
+    return '{0}.{1}'.format(
+        name if not expected_real_ext or real_ext[1:] == expected_real_ext else filename,
+        ext)
+
+
+def check_executable(exe, args=[]):
+    """ Checks if the given binary is installed somewhere in PATH, and returns its name.
+    args can be a list of arguments for a short output (like -version) """
+    try:
+        subprocess.Popen([exe] + args, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.PIPE).communicate()
+    except OSError:
+        return False
+    return exe
+
+
+def get_exe_version(exe, args=['--version'],
+                    version_re=None, unrecognized='present'):
+    """ Returns the version of the specified executable,
+    or False if the executable is not present """
+    try:
+        out, _ = subprocess.Popen(
+            [encodeArgument(exe)] + args,
+            stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.STDOUT).communicate()
+    except OSError:
+        return False
+    if isinstance(out, bytes):  # Python 2.x
+        out = out.decode('ascii', 'ignore')
+    return detect_exe_version(out, version_re, unrecognized)
+
+
+def detect_exe_version(output, version_re=None, unrecognized='present'):
+    assert isinstance(output, compat_str)
+    if version_re is None:
+        version_re = r'version\s+([-0-9._a-zA-Z]+)'
+    m = re.search(version_re, output)
+    if m:
+        return m.group(1)
+    else:
+        return unrecognized
+
+
+class PagedList(object):
+    def __len__(self):
+        # This is only useful for tests
+        return len(self.getslice())
+
+
+class OnDemandPagedList(PagedList):
+    def __init__(self, pagefunc, pagesize):
+        self._pagefunc = pagefunc
+        self._pagesize = pagesize
+
+    def getslice(self, start=0, end=None):
+        res = []
+        for pagenum in itertools.count(start // self._pagesize):
+            firstid = pagenum * self._pagesize
+            nextfirstid = pagenum * self._pagesize + self._pagesize
+            if start >= nextfirstid:
+                continue
+
+            page_results = list(self._pagefunc(pagenum))
+
+            startv = (
+                start % self._pagesize
+                if firstid <= start < nextfirstid
+                else 0)
+
+            endv = (
+                ((end - 1) % self._pagesize) + 1
+                if (end is not None and firstid <= end <= nextfirstid)
+                else None)
+
+            if startv != 0 or endv is not None:
+                page_results = page_results[startv:endv]
+            res.extend(page_results)
+
+            # A little optimization - if current page is not "full", ie. does
+            # not contain page_size videos then we can assume that this page
+            # is the last one - there are no more ids on further pages -
+            # i.e. no need to query again.
+            if len(page_results) + startv < self._pagesize:
+                break
+
+            # If we got the whole page, but the next page is not interesting,
+            # break out early as well
+            if end == nextfirstid:
+                break
+        return res
+
+
+class InAdvancePagedList(PagedList):
+    def __init__(self, pagefunc, pagecount, pagesize):
+        self._pagefunc = pagefunc
+        self._pagecount = pagecount
+        self._pagesize = pagesize
+
+    def getslice(self, start=0, end=None):
+        res = []
+        start_page = start // self._pagesize
+        end_page = (
+            self._pagecount if end is None else (end // self._pagesize + 1))
+        skip_elems = start - start_page * self._pagesize
+        only_more = None if end is None else end - start
+        for pagenum in range(start_page, end_page):
+            page = list(self._pagefunc(pagenum))
+            if skip_elems:
+                page = page[skip_elems:]
+                skip_elems = None
+            if only_more is not None:
+                if len(page) < only_more:
+                    only_more -= len(page)
+                else:
+                    page = page[:only_more]
+                    res.extend(page)
+                    break
+            res.extend(page)
+        return res
+
+
+def uppercase_escape(s):
+    unicode_escape = codecs.getdecoder('unicode_escape')
+    return re.sub(
+        r'\\U[0-9a-fA-F]{8}',
+        lambda m: unicode_escape(m.group(0))[0],
+        s)
+
+
+def lowercase_escape(s):
+    unicode_escape = codecs.getdecoder('unicode_escape')
+    return re.sub(
+        r'\\u[0-9a-fA-F]{4}',
+        lambda m: unicode_escape(m.group(0))[0],
+        s)
+
+
+def escape_rfc3986(s):
+    """Escape non-ASCII characters as suggested by RFC 3986"""
+    if sys.version_info < (3, 0) and isinstance(s, compat_str):
+        s = s.encode('utf-8')
+    return compat_urllib_parse.quote(s, b"%/;:@&=+$,!~*'()?#[]")
+
+
+def escape_url(url):
+    """Escape URL as suggested by RFC 3986"""
+    url_parsed = compat_urllib_parse_urlparse(url)
+    return url_parsed._replace(
+        path=escape_rfc3986(url_parsed.path),
+        params=escape_rfc3986(url_parsed.params),
+        query=escape_rfc3986(url_parsed.query),
+        fragment=escape_rfc3986(url_parsed.fragment)
+    ).geturl()
+
+try:
+    struct.pack('!I', 0)
+except TypeError:
+    # In Python 2.6 (and some 2.7 versions), struct requires a bytes argument
+    def struct_pack(spec, *args):
+        if isinstance(spec, compat_str):
+            spec = spec.encode('ascii')
+        return struct.pack(spec, *args)
+
+    def struct_unpack(spec, *args):
+        if isinstance(spec, compat_str):
+            spec = spec.encode('ascii')
+        return struct.unpack(spec, *args)
+else:
+    struct_pack = struct.pack
+    struct_unpack = struct.unpack
+
+
+def read_batch_urls(batch_fd):
+    def fixup(url):
+        if not isinstance(url, compat_str):
+            url = url.decode('utf-8', 'replace')
+        BOM_UTF8 = '\xef\xbb\xbf'
+        if url.startswith(BOM_UTF8):
+            url = url[len(BOM_UTF8):]
+        url = url.strip()
+        if url.startswith(('#', ';', ']')):
+            return False
+        return url
+
+    with contextlib.closing(batch_fd) as fd:
+        return [url for url in map(fixup, fd) if url]
+
+
+def urlencode_postdata(*args, **kargs):
+    return compat_urllib_parse.urlencode(*args, **kargs).encode('ascii')
+
+
+def encode_dict(d, encoding='utf-8'):
+    def encode(v):
+        return v.encode(encoding) if isinstance(v, compat_basestring) else v
+    return dict((encode(k), encode(v)) for k, v in d.items())
+
+
+def dict_get(d, key_or_keys, default=None, skip_false_values=True):
+    if isinstance(key_or_keys, (list, tuple)):
+        for key in key_or_keys:
+            if key not in d or d[key] is None or skip_false_values and not d[key]:
+                continue
+            return d[key]
+        return default
+    return d.get(key_or_keys, default)
+
+
+def encode_compat_str(string, encoding=preferredencoding(), errors='strict'):
+    return string if isinstance(string, compat_str) else compat_str(string, encoding, errors)
+
+
+US_RATINGS = {
+    'G': 0,
+    'PG': 10,
+    'PG-13': 13,
+    'R': 16,
+    'NC': 18,
+}
+
+
+def parse_age_limit(s):
+    if s is None:
+        return None
+    m = re.match(r'^(?P<age>\d{1,2})\+?$', s)
+    return int(m.group('age')) if m else US_RATINGS.get(s)
+
+
+def strip_jsonp(code):
+    return re.sub(
+        r'(?s)^[a-zA-Z0-9_.]+\s*\(\s*(.*)\);?\s*?(?://[^\n]*)*$', r'\1', code)
+
+
+def js_to_json(code):
+    def fix_kv(m):
+        v = m.group(0)
+        if v in ('true', 'false', 'null'):
+            return v
+        if v.startswith('"'):
+            v = re.sub(r"\\'", "'", v[1:-1])
+        elif v.startswith("'"):
+            v = v[1:-1]
+            v = re.sub(r"\\\\|\\'|\"", lambda m: {
+                '\\\\': '\\\\',
+                "\\'": "'",
+                '"': '\\"',
+            }[m.group(0)], v)
+        return '"%s"' % v
+
+    res = re.sub(r'''(?x)
+        "(?:[^"\\]*(?:\\\\|\\['"nu]))*[^"\\]*"|
+        '(?:[^'\\]*(?:\\\\|\\['"nu]))*[^'\\]*'|
+        [a-zA-Z_][.a-zA-Z_0-9]*
+        ''', fix_kv, code)
+    res = re.sub(r',(\s*[\]}])', lambda m: m.group(1), res)
+    return res
+
+
+def qualities(quality_ids):
+    """ Get a numeric quality value out of a list of possible values """
+    def q(qid):
+        try:
+            return quality_ids.index(qid)
+        except ValueError:
+            return -1
+    return q
+
+
+DEFAULT_OUTTMPL = '%(title)s-%(id)s.%(ext)s'
+
+
+def limit_length(s, length):
+    """ Add ellipses to overly long strings """
+    if s is None:
+        return None
+    ELLIPSES = '...'
+    if len(s) > length:
+        return s[:length - len(ELLIPSES)] + ELLIPSES
+    return s
+
+
+def version_tuple(v):
+    return tuple(int(e) for e in re.split(r'[-.]', v))
+
+
+def is_outdated_version(version, limit, assume_new=True):
+    if not version:
+        return not assume_new
+    try:
+        return version_tuple(version) < version_tuple(limit)
+    except ValueError:
+        return not assume_new
+
+
+def ytdl_is_updateable():
+    """ Returns if youtube-dl can be updated with -U """
+    from zipimport import zipimporter
+
+    return isinstance(globals().get('__loader__'), zipimporter) or hasattr(sys, 'frozen')
+
+
+def args_to_str(args):
+    # Get a short string representation for a subprocess command
+    return ' '.join(shlex_quote(a) for a in args)
+
+
+def error_to_compat_str(err):
+    err_str = str(err)
+    # On python 2 error byte string must be decoded with proper
+    # encoding rather than ascii
+    if sys.version_info[0] < 3:
+        err_str = err_str.decode(preferredencoding())
+    return err_str
+
+
+def mimetype2ext(mt):
+    ext = {
+        'audio/mp4': 'm4a',
+    }.get(mt)
+    if ext is not None:
+        return ext
+
+    _, _, res = mt.rpartition('/')
+
+    return {
+        '3gpp': '3gp',
+        'smptett+xml': 'tt',
+        'srt': 'srt',
+        'ttaf+xml': 'dfxp',
+        'ttml+xml': 'ttml',
+        'vtt': 'vtt',
+        'x-flv': 'flv',
+        'x-mp4-fragmented': 'mp4',
+        'x-ms-wmv': 'wmv',
+    }.get(res, res)
+
+
+def urlhandle_detect_ext(url_handle):
+    try:
+        url_handle.headers
+        getheader = lambda h: url_handle.headers[h]
+    except AttributeError:  # Python < 3
+        getheader = url_handle.info().getheader
+
+    cd = getheader('Content-Disposition')
+    if cd:
+        m = re.match(r'attachment;\s*filename="(?P<filename>[^"]+)"', cd)
+        if m:
+            e = determine_ext(m.group('filename'), default_ext=None)
+            if e:
+                return e
+
+    return mimetype2ext(getheader('Content-Type'))
+
+
+def encode_data_uri(data, mime_type):
+    return 'data:%s;base64,%s' % (mime_type, base64.b64encode(data).decode('ascii'))
+
+
+def age_restricted(content_limit, age_limit):
+    """ Returns True iff the content should be blocked """
+
+    if age_limit is None:  # No limit set
+        return False
+    if content_limit is None:
+        return False  # Content available for everyone
+    return age_limit < content_limit
+
+
+def is_html(first_bytes):
+    """ Detect whether a file contains HTML by examining its first bytes. """
+
+    BOMS = [
+        (b'\xef\xbb\xbf', 'utf-8'),
+        (b'\x00\x00\xfe\xff', 'utf-32-be'),
+        (b'\xff\xfe\x00\x00', 'utf-32-le'),
+        (b'\xff\xfe', 'utf-16-le'),
+        (b'\xfe\xff', 'utf-16-be'),
+    ]
+    for bom, enc in BOMS:
+        if first_bytes.startswith(bom):
+            s = first_bytes[len(bom):].decode(enc, 'replace')
+            break